Modelling Mental Health Services with Principles of Primary Health

Question: Discuss about the Modelling Mental Health Services with Principles of Primary Health Care. Answer: Modelling Mental Health Services with Principles of Primary Health Care This paper will first discuss the underlying principles of PHC. It will then go forward to address the administration of psychiatric services to the community, which is one of the nurses' roles in PHC. While discussing mental services, the paper will evaluate the way the current delivery of mental health care balances with the principles of PHC. Principles of Primary Health Care and Roles of Nurses For the sake of a substantial definition of PHC, this paper will define PHC as socially convenient, universally available, scientifically reliable level care. This care originates from the health administrations and frameworks with a flexible workforce containing multidisciplinary groups. At that point, these groups are sustained by incorporated referral structures. From this definition, it is then clear that PHC cannot be an independent domain with a health care sector, and it is from this purpose it accommodates the effort of community mental health nurses (CMHN). While this paper will center attention on mental health systems, it is no doubt that all health professionals need to understand the entire concept of PHC and the extent which the utilization of its principles can prevent and improve mental health. In (World Health Organization [WHO], 2015) PHC principles are accessibility, equity and Justice, education and use of appropriate technology, community participation and intersectoral collaboration, culturally safe environment, health promotion and illness prevention. Accessibility, Equity, and Justice By looking at equity, it's worth noting that mental disorders do not only affect the ill person. There is also the community where the patients come from. Another thing to understand is that this community has its perception regarding mental disorders (Poreddi, Reddemma, Ramachandra Math, 2013). Following this, CMHN come in to reduce the stigma associated with mental disorders. Its more of restoring the patients and their family dignity, and that is what the principle of equity and justice entail (Azetsop Ochieng, 2015). In offering social justice, CMHN usually employ the concept of dignity which is interlinked with social justice. Since social justice means equality with the notion of rendering equal privileges and opportunities in the society, (Tee, Brown Carpenter, 2012) states that mental health nurses help restore dignities to the mentally ill persons by treating them as well as educate the community to accommodate them. Like other patients, accessibility to mentally ill patients means being able to acquire quality treatment (Tee, Brown Carpenter, 2012). When there are mental health services in PHC, more people manage to receive those services. For instance, people consider PHC as the one closest place to run. Having psychiatrist in the PHC ensures development in physical accessibility of mental health nurses, and it saves people the traveling costs. Education and use of appropriate technology. With CMHN, mental health education has become a primary requirement among the consumers. Knowledge is a vehicle for fostering teamwork, and it soothes the adaptation process of living with the illnesses (Tee, Brown Carpenter, 2012). For example, psycho-education is a valuable therapeutic strategy to support the clients in handling their illness. Consumers who understand their treatment are collaborative, and they engage in actions that promote their recovery. Furthermore, (Happell, Bennetts, Platania-Phung Tohotoa, 2015) found that when mental health consumers start communicating with CMHN about their feelings, they receive advice that comfort which contributes to positive health outcomes. On the side of technology, digital media and resources like online forums, emails, websites and blogs among others are now universal in the society (Goss, Anthony, Stretch Nagel, 2016). One of the characteristics of technology integration in mental health is the technology based-assessment (TBA) and technology-assisted care (TAC) (Goss, Anthony, Stretch Nagel, 2016). TBA involves interventions like recovery support, treatment, relapse prevention, etc. On the other hand, TAC in mental health helps in transcending geographic boundaries enabling CMHN to reach an enormous number of consumers (Goss, Anthony, Stretch Nagel, 2016). In particularly, TAC helps CMHN to improve early access to care, engage patients online and undertake medication follow ups online. Community participation and Intersectoral Collaboration Community involvement means involving the patients or their care givers in expressing their views or engaging them in the decision-making process (Lawn, 2015). The involvement includes sharing their feelings, information, and adhering to health workers' instructions. Currently, CMHN view community participation as mainstream in their expectation and care practice (Lawn, 2015). With community engagement, CMHN assists the consumers to improve the quality of their lives at different levels. At a personal level, CMHN allows the consumers to have an input into their treatment and the services (Lawn, 2015). At the organizational level, CMHN accommodates the users contributions to health agencies or organization (Lawn, 2015). The consumers also participate in the discussion that aims to improve the community and make it a more inclusive environment for mentally ill persons. At the policy level, CMHN welcomes the consumers to work in the policy agencies or accommodates their inputs in the policy development (Lawn, 2015). In CMHN, intersectoral collaboration means maintaining a relationship with various community sectors (Subodh Nebhinani, 2016). Some of these are the health management sectors, social services, education, transportation, local government, etc. For example, a collaboration between CMHN, and tobacco control sectors can come up with legislation, or a policy empowers the CMHN to launch quit-smoking programs. Culturally safe environment A good definition of culture is the collection of values, beliefs, and knowledge inherited through generation. On the other hand, cultural sensitivity would mean being open to the manners in which people and their lifestyle shape health and their health behaviors (Yearwood Hines-Martin, 2016). Therefore, cultural safety is an approach that encompasses an exploration to reflect on and understand one's own culture and the way it interacts with other cultures. In CMHN, cultural safe environment is a tool for upholding equity, and for bringing empowerment to the people. CMHN systems respond to articulating cultural competence within all stages of service delivery (Yearwood Hines-Martin, 2016). The overall interrelationship gives cultural competence a different classic definition. The concept identifies competence as a set of unified attitudes, policies, and behaviors that empower the CMHN systems to function effectively within a cross-cultural setting. With the help CMHN, the integrated society understands the impacts of mental disorders on the social health and their health care systems (Yearwood Hines-Martin, 2016). Also, CMHN helps the society to utilize the community health services. Despite that CMHN goes to the extent of compulsory assessment when an ill person objects the assessment, it's also easier to see that the outcome is for the benefit of the society (Procter, Hamer, McGarry, Wilson Froggatt, 2013). The entire activity is for the good of the community as it eradicates what would have been a critical disease (Procter, Hamer, McGarry, Wilson Froggatt, 2013). Therefore, CMHNs are sometimes forced to use their professional judgments in maintaining the safety of the bigger society. Health Promotion and Illness prevention In CMHN, Health promotion is a practice that centers its focus on the components of mental health. In (Tee, Brown Carpenter, 2012), this emphasis endeavors to maintain peoples health or even make it better. In other words, promotion of mental health attempts to enhance the societys capacity to accomplish psychosocial well-being and assist consumers in handling their adversities. On the other hand, CMHN prevention of illnesses administers the various causes of mental diseases, and the steps that people can take to avoid the risk to those diseases (WHO, 2015). By looking at mental diseases prevention, CMHN looks at the three areas of prevention. One of these is the primary prevention. This one targets the entire population while examining the multiple determinants of mental illnesses. The other one is the secondary prevention. This one comprises of early detection of the disorder and its intervention, and also targets the entire population (Tee, Brown Carpenter, 2012). Lastly, the tertiary prevention. This one administers the entire community for the process of recovery and reduction of the risks (WHO, 2015). Practically, CMHN facilitates the developmental programs and undertake timed achievement goal plans for health promotion. In the same way, they evaluate their progress on the main developmental programs. Besides, they focus their attention and funding to those important programs of mental health promotion and disease prevention (Tee, Brown Carpenter, 2012). Moreover, while undertaking their programs, they keep in mind the gender and the age of those who are at risk of critical mental health problems. Conclusion The integration of mental health system into PHC offers CMHN nurses with an opening to advocate for the rights of mentally ill persons. This also saves the patients costs and brings equity of access to care to the community. Through education and technology integration, mentally ill persons get a chance to enjoy the benefits of education and technology as other patients. Above all, CMHN help to restore the dignity of the patients and assist them to acquire a space in the society as other persons. References World Health Organization [WHO]. (2015). WHO global strategy on integrated people-centred health services 2016-2026. Placing People and Communities at The Centre Of Health Services. Retrieved from https://africahealthforum.afro.who.int/?-documents- Yearwood, E., Hines-Martin, V. (2016). Routledge handbook of global mental health nursing (1st ed.). Taylor Francis. Tee, S., Brown, J., Carpenter, D. (2012). Handbook of mental health nursing (1st ed.). London: Hodder Arnold. Subodh, B., Nebhinani, N. (2016). Promoting mental health: Need for international collaboration. Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry, 32(3), 287. https://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0971-9962.193272 Procter, N., Hamer, H., McGarry, D., Wilson, R., Froggatt, T. (2013). Mental health (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. Poreddi, V., Reddemma, K., Ramachandra, Math, S. (2013). People with mental illness and human rights: A developing countries perspective. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(2), 117. https://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.111447 Lawn, S. (2015). Integrating service user participation in mental health care: what will it take? International Journal of Integrated Care, 15(1). https://dx.doi.org/10.5334/ijic.1992 Happell, B., Bennetts, W., Platania-Phung, C., Tohotoa, J. (2015). Exploring the Scope of Consumer Participation in Mental Health Nursing Education: Perspectives from Nurses and Consumers. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 52(3), 169-177. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ppc.12113 Goss, S., Anthony, K., Stretch, L., Nagel, D. (2016). Technology in mental health (2nd ed.). Charles C Thomas Publisher. Azetsop, J., Ochieng, M. (2015). The right to health, health systems development and public health policy challenges in Chad. Philosophy, Ethics, And Humanities in Medicine, 10(1), 1. https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13010-015-0023-z

Multi

Introduction A project can be defined as a set of planned activities that are used to come up with clear and specific objectives within a given timeline and budget. The activities of a project are generally involving and painstaking, beginning with the identification of resource mobilization team and task force that helps to develop the necessary resource allocations and core operational lending to fund the project.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More A full participatory approach that entails a multi-disciplinary/multi-sectored approach is necessary to expedite the project cycle activities. The design phase of a project cycle is very crucial because it is the design process that determines the most feasible way through which the problem can be tackled, or objectives can be met. The involvement of a multi-disciplinary approach in participation e nsures that the project is successful and sustainable. However, as a development practitioner, one experiences various challenges while conducting a multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis hence affecting the actual outcome of the project. This paper aims at discussing the challenges/problems that a development practitioner experiences while conducting the aforementioned analysis. Discussion Stakeholders/beneficiaries are people who have a direct, significant and particular interest in given natural resources hence, have the liberty to express their views in a proposed project. Primary and secondary stakeholders, who have personal interests in the proposed project that addresses the problems concerned, are identified through a stakeholder analysis. Stakeholder analysis is very important as it helps in the development of strategic views that can be applied to address the problem. Multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis entails the identification of the different kinds of stakeholders who will take part in project development. These stakeholders are very important at every stage of the project cycle because each stage is related to the needs of the stakeholders in one way or the other (Caldwell, 2002). Appendix 1 represents a table that could be used in multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis (Gawler, 2005).Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More There are primary/direct stakeholders and these are very essential with regard to conservation. They are directly affected by any outcome of the project based on action taken hence; they are a very critical component of the project design process because wrong action will not yield into the desired impact of the project. The development practitioner should ensure that he/she clearly identifies the primary stakeholders as they are very essential in ensuring sustainability of the project. Secondary stakeholders are those wit h an indirect interest in the project. They entail donors, national government officials, consumers and private enterprises. Despite the fact that they are not included in all stages of the project, their periodic contribution is required (Guijt Woodhill, 2002). Opposition stakeholders adversely affect outcome of the project as they have the power to influence and control resources. They are mainly political leaders and mainly also known as gate-keepers. As a development practitioner, it is very important to establish a very good rapport with these stakeholders. In addition, it is very important that the practitioner develops amicable strategies of handling such stakeholders because they usually have personal interests. These stakeholders are interested in gaining favor from the rest of the population hence will seek to have all the credit given to them irrespective of the fact that they did not contribute much (Howlett, et al., 2000). Marginalized stakeholders are suppressed and t heir voices not given the importance they deserve. Irrespective of their input to project design and management, they lack the capacity of getting equally involved in a participatory approach during project design, implementation and management. It is left to the development practitioner to ensure that the marginalized stakeholders gain the recognition they deserve during problem identification, formulation of objectives, establishing the relevant approaches to addressing the problem and evaluating the strategy selected to determine its relevance in achieving the formulated objectives (Dickinson, 2002; Parpart, 1999).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The development practitioner should determine the nature and limits of every stakeholder’s role in the project. This is important to avoid misunderstandings that may prevent successful im plementation of the program. Some stakeholders can only play their roles to a certain point hence, the practitioner should know the limitations and the type of stake each stakeholder is willing to offer. Failure to identify what each stakeholder is willing to offer may lead to disagreements thereafter thus affecting the success of the project. Multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis is a very critical process that requires adequate time for the development practitioner to explore stakeholders’ views, values and perspectives and obtain their insight with regard to human and institutional landscape. The stakeholder’s insight determines whether collaboration is necessary (WWF Ecoregion Conservation Strategies Unit, 2000; Rahman, 1995). Multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis is very inherent to any participatory approach because it helps planners to confirm the effects of a certain activity, identify marginalized groups who will be affected by the project’s develop ment activities. In addition, it ensures cost-effectiveness of the project because different disciplines come together to identify a common ground for action. This way, each discipline contributes partly to the success of the project cycle rather than leaving the entire project burden and budget to one party. The involvement of various disciplines in a project prevents duplication of resources hence saves on resources and avoids wastage. However be affected by cultural values and beliefs of a people. Gender issues are a main I pediment to the success of projects. This is because, discrimination by gender excludes some stakeholders from the project cycle hence, the project address the problems of all stakeholders (Razavi, 1998; Lind, 1997). Multi-stakeholder analysis in project cycle involves various parties from national, international organizations, private sector and the civil society. The recent notion in project cycle development is that networking in an integrated way should be embraced so as to achieve the actual objectives of the project.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A participatory approach in project development is assumed involve each and every person with a stake, choice and voice in the project cycle development process. Unfortunately, this approach may be governed by gendered interests hence, not giving the least powerful the chance to voice in their views and opinions. A development practitioner experiences difficulties related to, equity and inclusion during multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis given the fact that participation discourse has shifted from mere beneficiary participation to involve questions related to rights, governance and citizenship (Gaventa, 2002; Becker, 2001). The involvement of stakeholders in a project participation discourse in most occasions, boils down to a situation whereby only the few vocal voices are raised and heard. Women have been seen to lose out where their presence and views are marginalized in the so called ‘participatory processes.’ In such a case, it becomes very difficult for a deve lopment practitioner to foster full participation in projects. Gender and full participation with regard to development is considered to be rather fraught and is associated with tensions and contradictions that are too much for a development practitioner to handle. Gender and development assumes a top-down approach since the views of both genders are not adequately considered due to prevailing frames of references and lack of wide participation in setting agenda and implementing proposed ideas (Guijt, 1994; Razavi Miller, 1995.). Every beneficiary has a right to his/her voice in development while integrating various disciplines to help alleviate poverty and injustice in the society. It would be important to entail political, organizing, practical and creative factors to help in addressing poverty and injustice, where the political factor would play a great role in ensuring that legal frameworks defend and advance the rights of the poor and marginalized. Organization focuses on ensu ring that people organize themselves in a proper way for collective struggle (Fals-Borda Rahman, 1991). In a culture where gender discrimination is evident, it becomes difficult for the development practitioner to fight against cultural values and ways despite the fact that full participation is achieved without discrimination of any sort. Women, just like men, have important roles to carry out in project management and design. Women and children are the most vulnerable in society and therefore, involving women just the same way as men would enhance the success of the project. Gender mainstreaming, where the development practitioner creates an environment in which both men and women have an equal role to play and voice in their views unanimously, should be developed. This way, varied responses encompassing all genders are incorporated into the project. However, gender mainstreaming in an environment where gender discrimination is evident would not easy to achieve as a development p ractitioner (The Netherlands, ITAD Ltd, 1999; McPhail Jacobs, 1995). The involved stakeholders are the key parties that identify problems and issues that need to be addressed. In developing countries, a participatory rural appraisal (PRA) has been used to foster participation in prevailing projects. PRA entails the use of semi-structured but highly participatory activities that draw on the local communities’ knowledge and skills, while assisting them to assess their environment and resources. This approach is bent on the fact that solutions should derived from the local community (Pratt, 2001; Leach, Mearns Scoones, 1997). Multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis helps to establish a rapport between the facilitator and the stakeholders, which is very essential for the success of a project. It is the first step in any project cycle because conducting a multi-stakeholder analysis is important for developing the required task force necessary to ensure that every stage of the pr oject cycle is successful, addressing the relevant issues affecting the stakeholders. However, it is very important that the facilitator suitably identifies the relevant stakeholders A multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis helps to formulate SMART objectives. In addition, this analysis helps to identify the locally available resources that can be included while addressing the problem at hand. The analysis also helps to identify conflicts of interests among the stakeholders hence; it will be easy to manage the stakeholders. Unfortunately, the conflicts can be very overwhelming for the facilitator such that it could lead to derailment of the project. The development practitioner should use the multi-stakeholder analysis process to develop appropriate strategies that will ensure that stakeholders’ conflicts of interests do not interfere with the success of the project (Insight Partnership, 1995). The analytical importance of gender as a vital element is obscured by the narrow focus on gender relations. When a project fails to address gender related issues at the start of the project, then it becomes difficult to incorporate them in the subsequent stages of the project cycle. A project that does not include the varying needs of men and women in social, linguistic, economic and cultural contexts is likely to be ineffective, unsustainable and inefficient. The development practitioner, who is mainly the facilitator/chairperson, may have a difficult time trying to identify the relevant stakeholders so they can take part in needs assessment, planning, implementation and evaluation of the project. This is because; individuals with personal interests may mislead the practitioner and he/she ends up identifying the wrong program and as a result, the project will not achieve intended objectives due to poor targeting (Rahman, 1995). A project may fail if the development practitioner does not adequately factor in the interests and groups of the different stakeholders in the area where a project is to be implemented. In such a case, stakeholders who feel that their interests are not adequately taken into account may use their power to prevent attainment of objectives. Therefore, it is very important that a development practitioner ensures that the interests of all the involved stakeholders are factored in during throughout the project cycle (Robb, 1999). Stakeholders may not be willing to accept the project. Such a case happens when the project was done while using a top-down approach hence, it may not be relevant to the stakeholders. Assuming the case of Australia’s aid program, environmental management system is developed and executed with the aim of achieving sound environmental performance. It establishes a structure through which environmental issues are addressed by allocation of resources, assignment of responsibilities and evaluation of practices, procedures and processes useful during the development, implementation, achievement, review and maintenance of policy and legal setting (Standards Australia/ Standards New Zealand, 1996 cited in Commonwealth of Australia, 2003). The EMS undergoes five steps to successfully develop a project/program that will ensure that environmental objectives in Australia are met. The first step entails comprehending policy and legal setting under which the desired useful activities will be implemented. Different stakeholders, that is, the AusAID staff, contractors, NGOs and associated development partners are required to fully understand the legal obligations related to AusAID’s activities to successfully carry out the assessment and properly manage the associated activities. The AusAID is involved with poverty reduction and environmental growth, stability and prosperity. The involvement of the relevant stakeholders helps to establish essential links that greatly fosters the effectiveness of the program in as far as poverty reduction was concerned (Commonwealth of Austral ia, 2003; Rademacher Patel, 2002). Multi-disciplinary approach of the AusAID is important as the Minister for Environment and Heritage is required to give advice before executing a project. Involving the Minister is very important because he/she is well aware of the objectives that the nation seeks to attain hence, will be in a position to give his/her opinion regarding the feasibility of the project with regard to the desired program effects. This example clearly indicates that the AusAID program identifies the desired stakeholders by conducting a training to create awareness. In this example, it is evident that the stakeholders involved are staff, contractors, NGOs and related parties involved in the implementation of the program’s activities. This example shows that while conducting a project, relevant stakeholders should be included in the project. This fosters the success and ability of the project to achieve its objectives. In addition, this network of stakeholders doe s not specify a certain gender or group of social group of people. The main focus is the ability to perform and objectives of the project. Depending on the role of each stakeholder, all will work collectively to carry on with assessment, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and review. Assuming that a different group of stakeholders were selected, that which did not have knowledge about AusAID, its objectives and policies, the successful execution of the project would be jeopardized (Commonwealth of Australia, 2003). A development practitioner encounters a hard time trying to involve all the relevant stakeholders within a location into the project. This is because; some of the stakeholders are overwhelmed with responsibilities thus present themselves as secondary stakeholders. The AusAID example shows this. Therefore, a practitioner is not able to create a mainstream environment that allows for multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis because some of the stakeholders are tied u p in other events or responsibilities. In such a case, the practitioner is obliged to continuously update other stakeholders, who are not able to frequently avail themselves. The development practitioner is faced with the responsibility of making the stakeholders aware of the fact that power is not a priority at the time. The most crucial thing during multi-disciplinary analysis is to ensure that various aspects of the society integrate with one another for the good of everyone and not for only those to whom power has been bestowed upon. Different stakeholders may discriminate against one another yet, when selected applying the recommended protocol, all the stakeholders are very important for the success and effectiveness of the project (Howlett, et al., 2000). When multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis is done correctly, the stakeholders’ interests are met and they gain capacity development, which is very important for project sustainability and ownership. In addition, the stakeholders are able to integrate the locally available resources to ensure the sustainability of the project. Sustainability is successful when a full participatory approach is achieved involving a mainstreamed environment. Some stakeholders would want to use their power to govern the use and control of the project yet, the project is meant to benefit everyone regardless of their status. It is difficult for the facilitator to ensure that the project maintains an impartial approach that does not favor anyone due to their individual power or position. Every stakeholder involved in the design and management of the project has an equal right to the project (The Unit for Social and Environmental Research at Chang Mai University (USER), 2004.). Conclusion Multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis is the initial and critical process of any project cycle. It is the determinant factor with regard to the success of the project. Understanding the views and opinions of the different stakeholde rs helps in designing a project that is relevant to the stakeholders. Identifying the ideal and relevant stakeholders to take part in the project management and design process is not easy but it should be carefully carried out. The stakeholders identified are a representative of the rest of the population hence; it is assumed that the needs of the stakeholders are a representation of the entire population within a particular society. If the stakeholder analysis is not carried out correctly, then the project ends up not addressing the desired society needs. Gender discrimination therefore, should be avoided and a full participatory approach encouraged. Reference List Becker, H. A., 2001. Social impact assessment. European Journal of Operational Research, 128, 311–21. Caldwell, R., 2002. Project Design Handbook (Working Draft Full Version 1.0 July 2002). Atlanta: CARE International. Commonwealth of Australia, 2003. Environmental Management Guide for Australia’s Aid Progr am 2003: AusAID. Canberra: AusAID. Dickinson, P., 2002. Preparing monitoring plans for the TDPs. Gland, Switzerland: WWF International. Gaventa, J., 2002. Introduction: exploring citizenship, participation and accountability. IDS Bulletin, 33, 1–11. Gawler, M., 2005. Project Design in the Context of Project Cycle Management. Prà ©vessin-Moà «ns: Artemis Services. Guijt, I., 1994. Making a difference: integrating gender analysis into PRA. PRA Notes, 19, 49–55. Guijt, I., Woodhill, J., 2002. Managing for Impact in Rural Development: A Guide for Project M E. Wageningen, The Netherlands: Office of Evaluation and Studies. Fals-Borda, O., Rahman, M. A., 1991. Action and knowledge: Breaking the monopoly with Participatory Action Research. New York: Apex Press. Howlett, D., et al. 2000. Stakeholder Analysis and Local Identification of Indicators of the Success and Sustainability of Farming Based Livelihood Systems. Sustainability Indicators for Natural Resource Policy, Wo rking Paper No. 5, Department for International Development (UK) Insight Partnership, 1995. Goal Oriented Project Planning Facilitator Training: Individual Procedures. The Netherlands: Little van der Geer. Leach, M., Mearns, R., Scoones, I. Eds. 1997. Community based sustainable development: consensus or conflict. IDS Bulletin, 28 (4), 12. Lind, A., 1997. Gender, development and urban social change: women’s community action in global cities. World Development, 25, 1205–1223. McPhail, K. Jacobs, S., 1995. Social Assessment. Washington D.C: The World Bank. Parpart, J., 1999. Rethinking participation, empowerment and development from a gender perspective. In J. Freedman (Ed.), Transforming development. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Pratt, G., 2001. Practitioners! Critical reflections on PRA and participation in Nepal. IDS Working Paper no. 122. Brighton: Institute of Development Studies. Pretty, J., 1995. Participatory learning for sustainable agriculture. Worl d Development, 23, 1247–1263. Rademacher, A., Patel, R., 2002. Retelling worlds of poverty: reflections on transforming participatory research for a global narrative. In Brock, K., McGee, R. Eds. Knowing poverty: Critical reflections on participatory research and policy. London: Earth scans Publications. Rahman, M., 1995. People’s self-development: Perspectives on Participatory Action Research. London: Zed Books. Razavi, S., 1998. Gendered poverty and social change. Discussion Paper DP. 94, Geneva: UNRISD. Razavi, S., Miller, C., 1995. From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the women and development discourse. Occasional Paper no. 1, Geneva: UNRISD. Robb, C., 1999. Can the poor influence policy? Participation in the World Bank’s poverty assessments. Washington, DC: World Bank. The Netherlands, ITAD Ltd, 1999. Project Cycle Management Training Handbook. EC, Brussels: ITAD. The Unit for Social and Environmental Research at Chang Mai University (USER), 2004. Sust ainable Production-Consumption Systems. Thailand: Chiang Mai.  https://www.hks.harvard.edu/centers/cid WWF Ecoregion Conservation Strategies Unit, 2000. Stakeholder Collaboration: Building Bridges for Conservation. Washington, DC: WWF US. Appendix This essay on Multi-disciplinary stakeholder analysis was written and submitted by user Sage Durham to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Multi Besides international trade, FDI by multinational corporations is a great force that is driving globalization of â€Å"the world economy† (Eun Resnick, 2007).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Multi-National Corporations Definition specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to the report presented by the UN, there are more than six hundred thousand multinational corporations across the world with more than a half a million foreign affiliates (Eun Resnick, 2007). In the course of the 1990s, these corporations’ FDI increased at the rate of ten percent annually while international trade’s annual growth rate was 3.5 percent in the same period (Eun Resnick, 2007). Moreover, it is reported that the worldwide MNCs’ sales increased to eleven trillion dollars in the year 1998, â€Å"compared to about $7 trillion of world exports in the same year† (Eun Resnick, 2007, p.15). It is indica ted that the multinational corporations are influencing the global economy. In this paper, there is going to be a discussion on MNCs and what motivates them to invest overseas. There is also going to be a discussion about different risks these corporations face and how they manage them. A multinational corporation can be defined as â€Å"a business firm incorporated in one country that has production and sales operations in several other countries† (Eun Resnick, 2007, p.15). This involves a situation where a firm acquires the sales operations and production from one national market and the financial capital from another; producing commodities â€Å"with labor and capital equipment in a third country, and selling the finished product in yet other national markets† (Eun Resnick, 2007, p.15).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Certainly, among the MNCs, there are t hose that carry out business operations in various nations. They receive funding from the main money market centres across the globe in various currencies. It is pointed out that â€Å"global operations force the treasurer’s office to establish international banking relationships, place short-term funds in several currency dominations, and effectively manage foreign exchange risk† (Eun Resnick, 2007, p.15). The benefits that the MNCs can gain from investing overseas are the motivating factors for making such investments (Eun Resnick, 2007). They may gain from having a global presence in a number of ways. Firstly, they can gain from the economies of scale which may be realized though undertaking various activities. For instance, they may realize this by engaging in spreading expenditures of research and development and costs of advertising over sales made on the international market. Moreover, they can realize economies of scale by â€Å"pooling the global purchasing power over suppliers† (Eun Resnick, 2007, p.17). They can also realize this by using the managerial and technological skills internationally, with very low extra costs. Another gain from investing overseas is that these corporations can utilize their worldwide presence to capitalize on the lower labor service prices that are found in particular developing nations, and in turn acquire â€Å"access to special RD capabilities residing in advanced foreign countries† (Eun Resnick, 2007, p.17). Without any doubt, the MNCs can engage in leveraging their worldwide presence in order to increase profit margins and also to realize value creation (Eun Resnick, 2007).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Multi-National Corporations Definition specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The emerging markets are quite attractive and present great opportunities for the MNCs to invest. However, these markets are greatly unpredi ctable and may present various political risks. Under international finance, a political risk is said to exist in a situation where the political change can contribute towards having discontinuities within the business environment which are very hard to foresee. According to Thunnel (1977), there are two types of political risks; one of them is sovereign risk. This occurs in the host nations where a MNC can be affected by either social or government instability which may involve having revolutions and political strikes among others. The other type involves risks that occur between the host nation and the home country of the MNC, and this may involve having wars, trade frictions and â€Å"cross-currency control risks† (Liu Bjornson, 1998, p.362). The biggest risk that the multinational corporations face is â€Å"expropriation or nationalization of their investment, and forced withdrawal from the host country† (Liu Bjornson, 1998, p.362). Expropriation may involve a ho st nation engaging in appropriating the rents or profits of the multinational corporation by rising the levels of taxes imposed on direct foreign investment or otherwise, utilizing its authority to moderately expropriate (Liu Bjornson, 1998). The MNCs manage risks that they face through various ways. One of them is through insurance. Several developed nations engage in selling the political risk insurance in order to cover the domestic companies as well as foreign assets.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance, in 1979, the United States government set up the â€Å"’Overseas Private Investment Corporation’ which provides insurance against expropriation, currency inconvertibility, political violence, and also loss of business income from interruptions to DFI operations† (Liu Bjornson, 1998, p.363). In 1988, MIGA or â€Å"Multinational Investment Guarantee Agency† was set up in order to boost â€Å"investment for economic development by insuring foreign investment against currency transfer restrictions, expropriation, war, civil disturbances, and breach of contract† (Liu Bjornson, 1998, p.363). The MNCs also manage the risk exposure by negotiating the environment. They do this by making concession agreements with the government of the host country before investing. They define the responsibilities as well as the rights of these two parties. These may include having tax breaks, constructing the infrastructure and having property rights that a re defined in a clear manner. The â€Å"negotiating environment† approach was used in the case that involved China as a host country and McDonald’s in 1994, to deal with the issue of property rights (Liu Bjornson, 1998). The other effective approach is to restructure the investment. Basing on this approach, the multinational corporations seek to bring down the level of their exposure to risks by â€Å"increasing the host country’s cost of interference with company operations† (Liu Bjornson, 1998, 363). Among the strategies of this nature is vertical integration which â€Å"keeps the local affiliate dependent on external MNC subsidiaries for inputs or market† (Liu Bjornson, 1998, 363). In conclusion, it has been established in the discussion that the multinational corporations are motivated to invest in foreign countries by the potential benefits that such investments bring. By investing overseas, they can gain from the economies of scale and may also be able to take advantage of the lower labor costs that are found mostly in developing nations. However, the MNCs also face political risks such as revolutions, political strikes, wars, trade frictions and â€Å"cross-currency control risks† among others. The MNC have been managing these risks by using such approaches as taking insurance cover, negotiating the environment and restructuring the investment among others. References Eun, C.S. Resnick, B.G. (2007). International Financial Management. (4th ed.)New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Liu, Y. Bjornson, B. (1998). Managing exposure of direct foreign investment to political risk: The case of food businesses in China. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 1(3), 359 – 372. Thunnel, H. L. (1977). Political risk in international business: Investment behaviour of multinational corporations. New York, NY: Prager Publishers. This essay on Multi-National Corporations Definition was written and submitted by user Kaylynn Hebert to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

A Sample of Reflective Essay - Writing Essays is Simple

A Sample of Reflective Essay - Writing Essays is SimpleAs the title implies, a sample of reflective essay will be given to you for some time. The sample should give you a good idea of how to write an essay. You will not have to sit and stare at it because it will tell you how to write a reflective essay. That is what this article is all about.A reflective essay can be very helpful and useful in getting your point across clearly. You will need to know what to put in your writing and also what not to put in it. You will also need to know what parts of the world you belong to and what part you do not belong to. By knowing these, you will be able to differentiate yourself from others who are writing essays in the same subject.It is quite easy to get stuck in the writing and find it hard to get the ball rolling. It is always best to start writing and then you can see where the direction you want to take the essay is going. This way you will not become too confused about the direction that you want to take.These essays are very helpful especially if you are a new writer. Most colleges will require writing for their courses. It is very common that students who are writing essays for their college assignments will have to write reflective essays. Usually these essays are required during the college entrance exam.Many of these essays will contain essays on the same topic. These essays are usually very short as to avoid giving them the attention they deserve. You should try and be creative and make the essay unique.When writing an essay on a particular subject, you will need to write about the same subject as well as personal experiences that relate to that subject. This is very important when writing about how to write a reflective essay.This type of essay is written using the first person. You will be using the first person voice. This means that you will be using the thoughts and feelings of the main character in the essay. You will write down their words and phrases and put them together with your own words and phrases to form your own words and phrases.In conclusion, writing a reflective essay is not difficult. A sample of reflective essay will be enough to guide you through the process.

Making Money from Farm Magazines

Making Money from Farm Magazines After publishing an article in  N.D. REC  magazine about  Toy Farmer  magazine, the TF editor asked if I would write for them. I said no; I knew green was John Deere equipment and red was International Harvester, but I knew almost nothing about farm toys. â€Å"Doesn’t matter,† editor Cathy Scheibe said. â€Å"Just be accurate.† Just be accurate! Of course! Accuracy is the hallmark of any article if you want to get it published and make money at writing. She named two collectors within ten minutes of me. How could I refuse? Thus began a working relationship that morphed into writing for a dozen other farm-related magazines, relationships which continue today, thirty years later, half my writing income every month, at ten cents a word to $350 an article, depending on which magazine, pay-on-publication. Writing for  Toy Farmer  at that time required photo sessions at farm homes of collections of thirty to a thousand toy tractors, combines, plows, and other miniature equipment, ranging from about 1.5 inches long to 18 inches long. Or toy trucks, which led to articles in  Toy Trucker Contractormagazine. Invariably after the session farmers would say, â€Å"Let me show you my other toys,â€Å" leading me to a Quonset filled with a dozen or two or more, real, big, tractors. Another opportunity, which led to articles in magazines featuring the big tractors:  Red Power, Green Magazine, Polk‘s Antique Tractor Magazine, Antique Power, Steam Traction, Farm Show, Farm Times, and  Farm Ranch Living. But the real steady money-makers were Gas Engine (68 articles, and counting,)  Farm Collector, (233 articles, and counting,) and the granddaddy of them all,  Toy Farmer  (293 articles, and counting.) As well as seven books about farm toys and tractors. The key to success at selling to these markets is threefold: 1. Finding the collectorsnot as difficult as it seems. Rather than going from farm to farm as I used to, now the simplest way is attending thresher shows or toy shows, held all over the U.S. Or finding neighbors or friends who collect. 2. Taking publishable pictures of collections at the shows, and if possible, getting the telephone numbers of collectorsnot always easy as they are often busy elsewhere in the show. These photos alone, or plus a quick chat with a collector at the show, if possible, is your research for your query letter to the magazines. Sometimes the pictures you take don’t become an articlethe life of a writer. Right now I have 59 sets of photostaken at a series of shows ready to query to my regular magazine editors. Judging Collectors often help with photos; for example, with my latest piece with Farm Collector, the interviewee revealed he owned a very rare tractor he hadn’t had at the show. He provided photos. 3. Set up telephone interviews. You’ll discover farm collectors are very passionate about their collections. They often tell great stories you can use: â€Å"As kids, my brother got mad at me, grabbed my cast-iron tractors, and smashed them on the sidewalk one These markets require basic information about the collection and collector, which they are more than willing to give. After you’ve studied a couple of the magazines, give them a try. The field is wide open. Farm Magazines: Farm Collector Magazine,  www.farmcollector.com Farm Show Magazine,  www.farmshow.com Gas Engine,  www.gasenginemagazine.com Green Magazine,  www.greenmagazine.com Red Power Magazine,  www.redpowermagazine.com Toy Farmer Magazine,  www.toyfarmer.com Toy Trucker Contractor Magazine,  www.toytrucker.com

Best Case Questions

It can point out significant matters of the financial statements but does not provide assurance of their accuracy. Because reviews are generally not as rigorous as audits, considerably less evidence is typically collected in a review than in a comparable audit engagement. The issue with ZZZZ Best case is that the auditors review was not sufficient enough to review any material misstatements on the financial statements. 3. SAS 106 (AU 326), Audit Evidence, specifically identifies the principal management assertions that underlie financial statements.The existence/occurrence assertion was particularly critical for ZZZZ Best’s insurance restoration contracts. ZZZZ Best’s auditors obtained third-party confirmations to support the contracts, reviewed available documentation, performed analytical procedures to evaluate the reasonableness of the revenues recorded on the contracts, and visited selected restoration sites. * What were the limitations of the evidence that these procedures provided with regard to the management assertion of existence/occurrence? 8 points) The limitations of the evidence that these procedures provided with regard to the management assertion of existence/occurrence was that Minkow insisted on Ernst Whinney to sign a standard confidentiality agreement where it stated that Ernst Whinney will not be able to make any follow-up telephone calls to any contractors, insurance companies, the building owner, or other individuals involved in the restoration contract. This restriction effectively prohibited the auditors from corroborating the insurance restoration contracts with independent third parties. 4. George Greenspan testified before Congress that one method he used to audit the insurance restoration contracts was to verify that his client actually received payment on those jobs. * How can such apparently reliable evidence lead an auditor to an improper conclusion? (6 points) In Greenspan’s situation, his apparently reliable evidence was not from independent third party.When Greenspan confirmed the existence of ZZZZ’s insurance restoration contracts, he contacted Tom Padgett who at the time was an active and willing participant in Minkow’s fraudulent schemes. 5. Re: Predecessor-successor auditors: * What is the purpose of predecessor-successor auditor communications? * Which party, the predecessor or successor auditor, has the responsibility for initiating these communications?The successor auditor should obtain information from the predecessor auditor that will assist the successor auditor in determining whether to accept the engagement. Matters subject to the inquiry should include information that might bear on the integrity of management, disagreements with management as to accounting principles, auditing procedures, or similarly significant manners, communications to those charged with governance regarding fraud and illegal acts by clients, communications to management and those charged with governance regarding signi?

Think like a biologist Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Think like a biologist - Case Study Example Primarily, we repose on failure of the statement that the human eye is a result of evolution coming from the analysis of eye components and their cooperation while working. In particular, â€Å"If you look at these [evolutionary] schemes, they often very abruptly add a lens or a cornea† (Than, 2010), while there is no such a process in the world when a part of an organism appears from nowhere and instantly connects with other parts in functioning. Probably, there must be a stronger argument than that one according to which there has been a simple sightless organism at the beginning that has transformed into the highest creature (a human being) with the eye almost universally adoptable for numerous needs of its owner. As for the claim of intelligent design of the human eye it sounds more argumentative. Although, there is no written proofs representing peculiarities of eye functioning or visual perception of people in different times since creation of Adam and Eve, today’s researches evidence that the human eye is unique in its general mechanisms, which parts are inseparable, for they all actively participate in sense of sight and removal of any of them leads to the critical reduction in

Rabies Virus Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Rabies Virus - Research Paper Example The RNP complex along with the the viral RNA is comprised â€Å"of the proteins L (transcriptase), N (nucleoprotein), and NS (transcriptase-associated)† (Rupprecht). â€Å"These aggregate in the cytoplasm of virus-infected neurons and compose Negri bodies, the characteristic histopathologic finding of rabies virus infection. The M (matrix) and G (glycoprotein) proteins are associated with the lipid envelope. The G protein forms the protrusions that cover the outer surface of the virion envelope and is the only rabies virus protein known to induce virus-neutralizing antibody† (Rupprecht). Rabies virus can be either the fixed type or street (wild type) (Rupprecht). Incubation period In dogs, the incubation period is usually 3-6 weeks but it may range from 10 days to a year. In man, the incubation period is usually from 1-3 months though it may be as short as 10 days or as long as 3 years. Incubation period is usually short in persons bitten on the face or head and long in those bitten on the legs. Incubation period is shorter in children. (Ananthnarayanan) Reservoirs of infection and host range The rabies virus infects a wide range of hosts, including dogs and cats, raccoons, coyotes, skunks, foxes, bats, and human beings. Any warm-blooded animal can be infected with rabies; however, some animals like wolves, foxes, and coyotes are more susceptible (Ananthnarayanan) Transmission About 99.8% of reported cases of rabies are due to bites of animals. The â€Å"other forms of transmission that have been reported includes contamination of mucous membranes, faulty vaccines, corneal transplants, and aerosol transmission† (Rupprecht) Signs and symptoms Rabies virus affects primarily the central nervous system, and causes an acute infection. In humans, there are five clinical stages: â€Å"the incubation period, prodrome, acute neurologic period, coma, and death† (Rupprecht) The prodromal period usually lasts from 2 to 10 days and clinical sympt oms are first noticed during this stage. The symptoms may include fever, general malaise, fatigue, cough, sore throat, dyspnea, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, dysphagia, abdominal pain, diarrhea, irritability, vertigo, headache, anxiety, nervousness and apprehension (Rupprecht). Some significant features like â€Å"insomnia, nightmares, depression, increased agitation, photophobia, priapism, and increased libido, may also occur† (Rupprecht). In that case, it suggests the presence of psychiatric disturbances encephalitis, or other brain abnormalities (Rupprecht). A pathognomonic feature in the acute neurologic period is difficulty in drinking together with intense thirst. Attempts to drink brings painful spasms of pharynx and larynx, producing choking that patients later develop a dread for even the sight or sound of water (hydrophobia) (Scheld & Whitley) In the acute neurologic period, the disease is categorized as dumb rabies if paralysis is the main clinical feature and as fur ious rabies if the symptom of hydrophobia is the main clinical feature. Both types of rabies may show signs like â€Å"focal and generalized convulsions, muscle fasciculations, hyperventilation, paresthesia, hypersalivation and nuchal rigidity† (Rupprecht) After the acute neurologic period ends, the patient may develop a rapid, irregular type of breathing. Very soon, paralysis and coma develops. Unless ventilator support is instituted, the patient may